Sentences Meaning
Created by irhamia
SENTENCE MEANING
A. SENTENCES BASED PREDICATE
According to Chafe (1981), a sentence is basically a structure of predication. An element that must be present in all sentences is the predicate. The predicate may be accompanied by one or more arguments; or it may not have an argument at all. When a predicate is accompanied by one or more arguments, the predicate dictates the nature and type of the argument, or arguments that accompany that predicate. For example, the predicate drink requires an argument that is animate, animals or humans, and another argument which is liquid. The predicate die requires an argument that is animate.Chafe (1981) identifies the following kinds of predicates:
1. Predicates showing states. Some examples are:
The house is large
Verb
Predicate
The river is wide
Verb
Predicate
The door is open
Verb
Predicate
Predicates showing states, like: large, wide, narrow, small, young, old, low, high, tall, short, thin, thick, etc. are said to be relative, while predicates showing states, like: open, shut, closed, dead, alive, single, married, male, female are absolute or fixed. Another kind of predicate showing a state is a predicate noun. Some examples are:
Albert is a doctor
Verb
Predicate
Jim is an engineer
Verb
Predicate
Robert and Allan are students.
Verb
Predicate
The next kind of predicate showing a state is a locat predicate. Some examples are:
The coats is in the cupboard
Verb
Predicate
The dictionary is on the table
Verb
Predicate
The painting is on the wall.
Verb
Predicate
2. Predicates showing actions. Some examples are:
Mr. Hubert Winston teaches history.
Verb
Predicate
Susan sings.
Verb
Predicate
My father killed a goat.
Verb
Predicate
My neighbor drives a taxi.
Verb
Predicate
Tom sat in the char.
Verb
Predicate
3. Predicates showing a process. Some examples are:
The clothes are drying
Verb
Predicate
Her body has been weakening
Verb
Predicate
The rope broke
Verb
Predicate
The ship sank into the sea.
Verb
Predicate
4. Predicates showing a process and an action. Some examples are:
The maid dried the clothes
Verb
Predicate
The sailor tightened the rope.
Verb
Predicate
The tiger killed a zebra.
Verb
Predicate
The people are widening the road
Verb
Predicate
5. Predicates showing states but ambient. An ambient predicate is a predicate that does not have an argument. The predicte is an all-encompassing state. Some examples are:
It is hot
Verb
Predicate
It is windy
Verb
Predicate
It is Wednesday
Verb
Predicate
In these sentences it does not refer to an object in the world.
6. Predicates showing an action but ambient. Some examples are:
It is raining
Verb
Predicate
It is snowing
Verb
Predicate
It is drizzling
Verb
Predicate
B. DEEP STRUCTURE CASES
As for the arguments that accompany a predicate, Fillmore (1968) in his semantic-based “Case Grammar” identifies ten kinds of arguments which he calls deep structure cases. The ten arguments are:
1. Agentive (V) : actor of some activity; animate
Some examples are: John opened the box
Agentive
The employes start work at 8 o’clock
Agentive
2. Experience (E) : being affected; animate.
Examples : John believed that he would win.
Experiencer.
She saw a book on the table
Experiencer
3. Instrumental (I) : inanimate force or object causally involved in the action.
Examples: A hammer broker the window
Instrumental
This knife does not cut the wood well
Instrumental
4. Objective (O) : the semantically most neutral case
Examples : John is strong
Objective
Mary opened a tin with a tin opener
Objective
5. Source (S) : the case of origin
Examples : The house was mad out of bamboo
Source
My uncle sent the bicycle from Jakarta
Source
6. Goal (G) : the case of ultimate objective or end
Examples : These packages will be sent to Medan
Goal
Ted went to Canada by plane
Goal
7. Locative (L) : the case of location or spatial orientation
Examples: Chicago is windy
Locative
It is hot in Surabaya
Locative
8. Temporal (T) : the case of the time orientatio
Example : classes begin at 7 o’clock in indonesia
Temporal
The guest arrived in the afternoon
Temporal
9. Comitative (C) : the case of ‘being together’
Example : the cheirwoman outlined the conference with her staff
Comitative
: my dougther is going to the store with her friend
Comitative
10. Benefactive (B) : the case of ‘getting the benefit’
Example : Mr. Romualdez bought a car for his son
Benefactive
: the mothe gave her maid a present.
Benefactive
C. CHAVES ARGUMENT
Quiet similar to fillmore,chafe (1981) identifies the following kinds of argument :
1. Agent. An agent accompanies an action verb or a process an action verb.
Examples :
The mechanic is repairing a car
Agent predicate
Marry teaches English
Agent predicate
2. Patient. A patient argument is an argument that accompanies a verb which is specified
as a state or a process. Some examples are :
The women was sick.
Patient predicate
Frederick is a student.
Patient predicate
The coat is in the cupboard.
Patient predicate
3. Experiencer
Examples :
Tom wanted a drink
Experiencer predicate patient
Rudi knew the answer
Experiencer predicate patient
the man saw a snake
experiencer predicate patient
4. Beneficiary
Examples :
My father owns two houses
Beneficiary predicate patient
Jim found his wallet.
Beneficiary predicate patient
My uncle sent his son a motorcycle
Agent predicate beneficiary patient
5. Instrument
Examples :
The lumberjacks cut trees with a saw.
Agent predicate patient instrument
My friend opened the door with a key.
Agent predicate patient instrument
6. Complement
Examples :
Mary sang a song
Agent predicate complement
The children played a game
agent predicate complement
The infantry fought the war.
Agent predicate complement
7. Location
Examples :
The knife is in the box
Patient predicate location
The cat is on the roof
Patient predicate location
The family photo is on the wall
Patient predicate location
D. CLASSIFICATION OF PREDICATES
Connecting the number of arguments that accompany a predicate, predicates are classified into several kind , such us :
1. Ambient predicates. These are predicates that do not have any obligatory arguments.
Examples :
It is snowy.
Predicate
It is foggy
Predicate
It is cold
Predicate
it is drizzling
predicate
2. One-place predicates. These are predicates that have two obligatory argument
Examples :
Peter is tall
Argument predicate
Miss Nancy Smith is a doctor
Argument predicate
Peggy smiles very often
Argument predicate adjunct
Mr. Johnson resigned
Argument predicate
3. Two-place predicates. These are predicates that have two obligatory arguments.
Examples :
The secretary is making out a cheque.
Argument predicate argument
The workers are building a hotel
Argument predicate argument
The driver drove his taxi very fast
Argument predicate argument adjunct
My father mended a broken chair
Argument predicate argument
4. Three-place predicates
Examples :
John gave Mary a bicycle
Argument predicate argument argument
My mother bought my sister a necklace
Argument predicate argument argument
My friend sent me a book
Argument predicate argument argument
(Kreidler, op.cit :210)
The company sent its distributor ten cars
Argument predicate argument argument
From Jakarta to Denpasar via Surabaya by ship
Argument argument argument argument
(source) (goal) (path) (instrument)
E. TYPE OF PREDICATION
Although there are seven arguments in the last sentence above, there are only three obligatory arguments, they ae : company, distributor, and cars. The other arguments : Jakarta (source), Denpasar (goal), Surabaya (path), and ship (instrument) are optional, not obligatory. This type of predication is also a three-place predicate.
1. Paraphrase or synonymy. A paraphrase or synonymy is a sentence or position that has the same meaning as another proposition. A proposition is an assertion or statement that has a predicate with or without an argument. Almost always however, a proposition is an assertion that has a predicate with one or more arguments. For example, the paraphrase of :
Ted is very intelligent, can be :
Ted is very brilliant
Ted is very clever
Ted is very witty
Ted is smart
Ted is not stupid
The paraphrase of tom is always punctual, can be :
Tom is always on time
Tom is never early
Tom is never late
The paraphrase of barbara is a teacher, can be :
Barbara is an intructor
Barbara is an educator
Barbara is a preceptor
2. Entailment. A entailment is a proposition that following another proposition. For example: the entailment of :
Andrew is a bachelor, can be:
Andrew is unmerried
Adrew is a single
The entailment of :
Greg’s grandfather died yesterday, can be:
Greg’s does not have a grandfather anymore
The entailment of :
Paul is an orphan, can be :
Paul does not have a father anymore
Paul does not have a mother anymore
Paul does not have a father and mother anymore
3. Presupposition. Presupotition is a proposition that precedes another proporition. For example, the proposition of patricia’s pen-friend visited her last week, can be patricia has a pen-friend.
The presupposition of Patrick stoppe smoking, can be Patrick smoked
The presupposition of ambrose was arrested by the police, can be amborse committed wrong doing.
4. Contradiction. For example:
The orphan has a mother
The rich man cannot buy his food
The spinter lived with her husband in Tokyo
5. Tautology. Tautology is a statement or a proposition which is necessarily true. It cannot be false. For example:
My father is a man
My mother is older then me
A mountain mounts
Water is wet
Heat is hot
6. Inconsistency. For examples:
I am an orphan is inconsistent with I have a fatrher.
Ronalds is a bachelor is in consistent with Ronald has a daughter
Hubert is an unemployed person is in consistent with Hubert teaches french
Adam is a badly off is consistent with adam bought a helicopter
7. Anomaly
The orphan’s mother lives in new York (leech, 1981: 74)
The beggar’s palace costs $10,000,000,000,000
My friend eats a lot of stones
8. Ambiguity. A proposition is ambiguous when there re two interpretations of meaning
For examples :
The athlete is standing up, may mean
1. The athlete is in the position of standing up, or
2. The athlete is in the process of assuming a standing position (chafe,170)
The police beat the man with a stick, may mean:
1. The police beat the man with a stick as an instrument to beat, or
2. The police beat the man who had a stick probably to help to walk
Eric is drawing a cart, may mean:
1. Eric is making a picture of a cart,or
2. Eric is pulling a cart
F. KIND OF SENTENCES
Finally, it is necessary to mention the kinds of sentences. Radford (2005) differentiates four kinds of sentences, they are :
1. Declarative sentences : to make statements
Example : he went home
2. Interrogative sentences : to make questions
Example : are youn feeling allright?
3. Imperative sentences : to issues an order or command
Example : you be quiet !
4. Exclamative sentences : to exclaim surprise or delight
Example : what a greet idea that is
REFERENCE
Adisutrisno, D. Wagiman. 2003. Semantics an introduction to the basic concepts. Surabaya. ANDI JOKJAKARTA
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